Plague doctors were a product of fear, improvisation, and early public health. The role became especially visible during repeated European outbreaks of plague in the early modern period, when cities hired physicians to treat—or at least manage—those infected. Their most famous feature, the “beaked” mask, is often associated with seventeenth-century Italy and France. The beak was typically packed with aromatic herbs, spices, or resins, based on the prevailing belief that disease spread through “m

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